Influence of nitrogen ion implantation on surface charge accumulation and dissipation of polytetrafluoroethylene
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摘要: 为了抑制聚四氟乙烯材料表面电荷积聚,采用射频产生氮等离子体对其表面进行等离子体浸没离子注入以改善其表面性能。对注入前后的聚四氟乙烯材料样品进行了X射线光电子能谱分析(XPS)、傅里叶红外光谱测试(FTIR)、水接触角测量、表面电阻率测量以及表面电位衰减测量,并基于等温表面电位衰减理论对其表面陷阱能级和密度分布进行了计算,以分析聚四氟乙烯样品经离子注入处理后其表面成分和物理性能的变化,并研究了这些变化对聚四氟乙烯样品表面电荷积聚和消散特性的影响。结果表明:氮离子注入后,聚四氟乙烯材料表面化学成分的主要变化是自身分子结构的破坏和转化,部分CF2结构转变为CF和CF3结构,导致样品表面陷阱能级变浅;水接触角升至140°左右,比未处理样品上升了约27°,表面电阻率降至3×1015 Ω,比未处理样品下降了两个数量级;表面电晕放电1 min后,经氮离子注入处理的聚四氟乙烯材料表面积聚电荷量减少,消散速度加快,这是因为表面陷阱能级变浅有利于表面电荷脱陷,同时表面电阻率降低也促进了表面电荷沿面传导的消散过程,聚四氟乙烯样品表面陷阱能级分布曲线也证实了这一论点。Abstract: To suppress the accumulation of charge on the surface of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) material, radio frequency nitrogen plasma was generated to perform plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) on the PTFE surface to improve its surface properties. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), water contact angle measurement, surface resistivity measurement and surface potential attenuation measurement were performed on the samples of PTFE material before and after injection to analyze the changes in surface composition and physical properties of PTFE samples after ion implantation treatment. Based on the theory of isothermal surface potential attenuation, the energy levels and density distributions of the surface traps were calculated. The results show that after nitrogen ion implantation, the main change in the chemical composition of the surface of the PTFE material is the destruction and conversion of its own molecular structure, and part of the CF2 structure is transformed into the CF and CF3 structures, resulting in shallower trap levels on the sample surface. The results also show that the water contact angle rose to about 140°, which is about 27° higher than that of the unprocessed sample. The surface resistivity drops to 3×1015 Ω, which is two orders of magnitude lower than that of the unprocessed samples. After 1 min of corona discharge on the surface, the amount of accumulated charge on the surface of the PTFE material processed with nitrogen ion implantation decreased, and the rate of dissipation increased. This is because the lower surface trap level is conducive to surface charge trapping, and the reduction in surface resistivity also promotes the dissipation process of surface charge along the surface. The curve of trap level distribution on the surface of PTFE sample also confirmed this.
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静止无功补偿器(SVC)相对于机械投切电容器组式的无功补偿装备,实现了无功功率精确、平滑补偿,是目前较为先进实用的无功补偿装置,已经得到了广泛应用。另外,SVC装置具有良好的分相补偿能力,对于电弧炉工作中造成的三相电压、电流不平衡有着独特的治理效果; 且晶闸管比全控型半导体开关器件造价低,有着更高的额定电压电流参数,适合拓展于高压、大容量场合。静止无功发生器(SVG)有着更快的响应时间,且可以不借助于无源支路,灵活的产生容性或感性无功功率进行调节。虽受限于目前全控型开关器件的电压容量及经济成本,然而在已经装设了SVC装置的工业现场,不改动已有的无源滤波支路,使用SVG配合SVC进行剩余无功功率补偿,具有非常大的应用拓展空间。本文针对广西某钢厂电弧炉现场,通过PSCAD/EMTDC对SVC和SVG联合方案进行了系统仿真验证[1-4]。
1. SVC与SVG无功补偿的基本原理
工业现场SVC有多种类型,主要有五种型式:磁阀控制电抗器型(MCR型)、可控硅控制空芯电抗器型(TCR型)、可控硅阀控制高阻抗变压器型(TCT型)、可控硅开关控制电容器型(TSC型)及自饱和电抗器型(SSR型)。基本原理及仿真主要围绕TCR型SVC。而本文所述的某钢厂电弧炉现场的负荷及SVC+SVG补偿装置的电压等级均为35 kV,并联于同一条母线下。
1.1 基于斯坦门茨理论的SVC补偿原理
TCR型SVC的基本原理是以母线三相电压矢量为基准,SVC装置发出与负荷基波无功电流幅值相等、相位相反的基波电流抵消负荷无功,而无源支路的容性无功容量与负荷最大感性无功基本持平,晶闸管阀控制单元根据负荷功率的变化调控电抗器感值灵活控制SVC需要补偿的无功功率[5],其基本结构如图 1所示。
根据斯坦门茨(Steinmetz, Charles Proteus)平衡化补偿原理[6],控制单元根据负荷无功计算出相应的电纳值,然后由电纳值推导出相应的触发角发送到晶闸管阀组。电纳值B与触发角α的关系式为
B(α)=1ωL2π+sin2α−2απ (1) 式中:ω为角频率; L为电抗值。
而斯坦门茨平衡化原理是由三相参考电压与负荷电流分别求出各相的电纳值。其基本关系式为
Bab=(Re(˙Ubc˜˙Ial)+Re(˙Uca˜˙Ibl)−Re(˙Uab˜˙Icl))√3U2ab (2) Bbc=(Re(˙Uca˜˙Ibl)+Re(˙Uab˜˙Icl)−Re(˙Ubc˜˙Ial))√3U2bc (3) Bca=(Re(˙Uab˜˙Icl)+Re(˙Ubc˜˙Ial)−Re(˙Uca˜˙Ibl))√3U2ca (4) 式中:˙Uab,˙Ubc,˙Uca为母线三相参考电压矢量; ˜˙Ial,˜˙Ib1,˜˙Icl是负荷三相相电流矢量。
根据斯坦门茨原理公式(2),(3)和(4)求出的电纳B值,由式(1)查表,分别求出三相触发角,实现无功开环算法[7],其结构如图 2所示。
1.2 基于瞬时功率理论的SVG补偿原理
SVG,相较于基于半控型晶闸管控制的SVC装置,有着更快的响应时间。不同于根据斯坦门茨原理来计算电路的等值电纳,SVG装置使用脉冲调制技术来驱动开关管器件。而目前常用的控制技术主要有基于快速傅里叶变换的电流控制技术和基于瞬时无功功率理论的控制方法。由于基于傅里叶变换的控制技术在原理上至少存在一个周期的延时,因此在快速响应的补偿场合,大多使用基于无功功率理论的控制方法。图 3所示典型SVG逆变器的电路拓扑。
求解上述电路的数学模型,并将态电路函数先进行PARK变换到d-q域,然后进行拉普拉斯变换,可有
{(sL+R)id=usd−urd+wLiq(sL+R)iq=usq−urq+wLidudc=32sC(Sdid+Sqiq) (5) 式中:id,iq为ia,ib,ic经过PARK变换在旋转p-q坐标系下的分量; Sa,Sb,Sc为三相桥臂的开关状态,S=1表示该相桥臂上管开通,下管关断; S=0表示该相下管导通,上管关断,经过p-q变换后为Sd,Sq。
针对参考电流,根据瞬时无功功率理论,如图 4所示,先经p-q变换求出其在旋转坐标系下的直流量,然后经过低通滤波器、p-q反变换得出其基波无功电流的参考量[8]。
根据瞬时无功功率理论得出参考电流量后,逆变器的控制器和实际控制框图如图 5所示。
在工业现场,通常将SVG装置直接并联于负荷母线下进行无功补偿[9-10]。本文提出的方案将SVG与SVC并联然后并联于同一母线的负荷下。
2. 广西某钢厂电弧炉的无功补偿现状
广西某钢厂110 kV高压变电站母线接入最小短路容量576 MV·A,安装50 MV·A主变压器一台,主变压器中压侧负荷主要为电弧炉和精炼炉负荷,低压侧主要为高压电动机负荷,目前场内35 kV母线侧安装TCR+FC型SVC,设置2次C型、3次、4次及5次单调谐滤波支路,总基波补偿容量25 Mvar(兆乏),系统主接线如下图 6所示。
而该钢厂电弧炉经过改造后,发出的无功功率远超原始无功量,因此需重新计算,并于实际比对。无功需量计算应综合考虑初炼交流电弧炉(EAF)和精炼电弧炉(LF)的最大无功发生量和同时率,工程推荐值按照下式确定
QD=k1QEAF,max+k2QL,F,max (6) 式中:k1为EAF无功发生量的计算系数,工程推荐值为0.9~1.2;k2为LF无功发生量的计算系数,工程推荐值为0.4~0.6;QEAF, max为EAF最大无功发生量,单位为兆乏(Mvar); QLF, max为LF最大无功发生量,单位为兆乏(Mvar); QD为无功需量,单位为兆乏(Mvar)。
根据计算,EAF,LF同时运行时35 kV所需最大无功发生量为35.25 Mvar。
35 kV母线所带轧机总装机容量为11 MV·A,取功率因数为0.7,功率因数提高至0.92,按公式可知
Q=P(√1cosφ21−1−√1cosφ22−1)=4.57Mvar (7) 式中:φ1为EAF的功率因数角; φ2为LF的功率因数角。因此,35 kV母线总无功补偿容量为39.82 Mvar,考虑一定的补偿裕度并结合电能质量测试报告,最终确定主变35 kV母线SVC装置的基波补偿容量为40 Mvar。针对原先25 Mvar的SVC系统,出现将近15 Mvar的无功缺口。
3. 基于PSCAD/EMTDC的SVC/SVG联合应用仿真
SVC具备良好的分相补偿能力,能更好适应三相不平衡工况,但响应时间较长; 而SVG有着更快响应时间。结合二者优点,针对该钢厂电弧炉现场无功补偿实际,仍可利用原先的SVC装置,由SVG填补电弧炉改造产生的增多的无功功率。将SVG单元前置与SVC单元之前,两装置独立检测、独立工作。先投入SVC及SVG装置,稳定之后一定时间内投入负荷无功源,使用PSCAD/EMTDC进行系统仿真,电弧炉负荷利用无功波动源模拟,仿真步长设为156 μs。系统的仿真结构图如图 7所示,SVG,SVC和无功波动源都接于35 kV母线。
SVC控制算法是根据式(1),(2),(3),(4)编写而成的C语言模块,然后由FORTRAN文件编写接口[11-12]。而SVG单元是由基本模块串联而成的三相桥[13],控制模块根据式(5)及图 4、图 5所示的控制算法搭建。SVC及SVG控制模块如图 8和图 9所示。
无功波动源是最大0~40 Mvar可变的三相不平衡感性无功波动源,充分模拟该钢厂的电弧炉无功功率变化。图 10为投入无功源之后TCR环内电流,可以看出三相TCR环内电流并不同步,响应了相应的不平衡。
图 11为无功源投入之后,SVG发出的无功功率。SVG发出最大近16 Mvar的容性无功功率,且感性无功值基本均小于0.3 Mvar,从另一个角度可以看出SVG响应速度优异。
为了考察SVG补充功率的真实效果,首先投入SVC,然后投入波动无功负荷,并不投入SVG,仿真结果如图 12所示。
在图 12中,QL为负荷无功波动源无功功率,Q1_35 kV为35 kV母线处的无功功率,在4.5 s负荷产生较大的无功波动,而此时只投入SVC,母线处仍有将近18 Mvar的感性无功,这种现象在5.5 s处负荷波动中也有类似的情况,证明在进行电弧炉改造后,SVC系统并不能完全补偿负荷的无功功率; 而在5.3s处,母线有将近20Mvar的容性无功过冲,对比图 11可知,此处的容性无功冲击在SVG并没有呈现,且不是负荷造成,因此是由于SVC不能及时响应造成的,也说明SVC较SVG响应较慢[14-15]。
进一步将SVC和SVG联合注入后,如图 13所示。与图 12相比,在4.5 s和5.5 s处母线的无功缺口功率基本得到了抑制,结合图 11,SVG起到了快速抑制剩余无功的作用。
4. 结论
电弧炉现场无功补偿系统进行SVC和SVG联合应用探索,需要明确两种装置各自的功能空间,即以TCR配套FC为无功功率补偿主体,并特别针对不平衡、负序等工况; 而SVG以其优良的更快速的响应性能,承担剩余无功功率抑制的任务。在这种分工前提下,参考补偿点位置至关重要,本文提出的方案SVC装置是无法捕捉到SVG功率补偿信息,即SVG参考位置在SVC上端,进行剩余无功功率补偿。但在实际中,SVC和SVG不可能同时响应,存在一定延时,因此对于容量有限的SVG,必须做前置限幅来防止过容量补偿指令带来的系统故障保护。处理完善参考点之后进行了PACAD/EMTDC系统仿真,从仿真结果来看,SVC和SVG联合应用可以起到预定的功率补偿效果,为其向广西电弧炉现场应用提供了理论和仿真级参考。
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表 1 离子注入处理前后PTFE样品表面C元素各状态含量比例
Table 1. Proportion of content of element C in PTFE sample surface before and after ion implantation
RF power/W processing time/h proportion/% C C=O CF CF2 CF3 0 0 31.1 8.4 1.4 58.2 0.8 200 1 32.2 5.3 1.5 59.5 1.6 200 2 17.4 5.3 2.1 72.9 2.2 400 2 16.6 5.0 2.1 69.5 6.7 表 2 不同射频功率和处理时间下的PTFE样品表面陷阱能级和密度
Table 2. Energy level and density of traps on the surface of PTFE samples under different RF power and processing time
RF power/W processing time/h surface trap level/eV surface trap density/(1020 eV−1·m−3) 0 0 0.756 9.82 200 1 0.754 9.19 200 2 0.755 8.56 400 2 0.735 7.04 -
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